madman
Super Moderator
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a form of brain disorder characterized by various pathological changes in the brain. Numerous studies have shown that sex hormones are involved in the disease. For instance, progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone are well-known steroid sex hormones that play an essential role in AD pathogenesis. The Gender-dependency of AD is attributed to the effect of these hormones on the brain, which plays a neuroprotective role. In recent years, much research has been performed on the protective role of these hormones against nerve cell damage, which is promising for AD management. Hence, in the current review, we aim to decipher the protective role of steroid hormones in AD. Accordingly, we will discuss their functional mechanisms at the genomic and non-genomic scales.
Introduction
Steroid hormones have different effects on various tissues such as gonads and the nervous system. In addition to their hormonal role in reproductive activity, they have protective functions in the central nervous system (CNS) [26, 37]. Following the binding of the hormone, receptors become phosphorylated, migrate to the nucleus, and activate transcription of specific genes. These hormones can affect different CNS areas, namely the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves, due to estrogen and progesterone receptors in these sites [26]. Previous studies showed that androgen and estrogen levels are higher in the newly-isolated hippocampus of male mice than in the plasma [42]. Steroids play an essential role in maintaining the body's vital balance. Neurosteroids are steroids synthesized in the brain independent of their peripheral production in the adrenal glands. Neurosteroids can regulate neuronal excitability and play a distinct role in anxiety and depression disorders [41]. Although neurosteroids do not directly contact the steroid hormone receptors, their metabolites can occupy intracellular steroid receptors. Neurosteroids can activate signaling pathways and alter cellular behavior by acting on the steroid receptor. In the current review, we first described the specificity of AD, then examined the role of steroid hormones in signaling pathways to prevent AD. Proper knowledge of these signaling pathways can provide the right treatment for better management of AD patients.
*Alzheimer's Disease
*Aβ Peptides in AD
*Neurosteroidogenesis in Alzheimer's disease
*Estrogen receptors in Alzheimer's disease
*The effects of sex hormones on signaling pathways in AD
*The Signaling Pathway of Testosterone in AD
*The Signaling Pathway of Estrogens in AD
*The Signaling Pathway of Progesterone in AD
Conclusion
Neurodevelopmental aspects of AD vary between men and women. Also, risk factors such as genetics and the environment are gender-specific for AD. The current knowledge provides valuable opportunities to understand the disease and make effective interventions. In general, sexual hormones and their metabolites can play an essential role in the survival of nerve cells, glial cells' function. Sexual steroid hormones can exert effects on learning by inducing the mitosis of the nerve cells. In adults, sexual steroid hormones have a broad range of neuroprotective effects; postmenopausal women are also at risk of neurological diseases such as AD. Due to steroid hormones and their metabolite's significant effects on re-myelination, steroid hormones could be one of the essential factors for the treatment of AD. Also, accurate knowledge of signaling pathways in therapeutic strategies can be beneficial.
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a form of brain disorder characterized by various pathological changes in the brain. Numerous studies have shown that sex hormones are involved in the disease. For instance, progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone are well-known steroid sex hormones that play an essential role in AD pathogenesis. The Gender-dependency of AD is attributed to the effect of these hormones on the brain, which plays a neuroprotective role. In recent years, much research has been performed on the protective role of these hormones against nerve cell damage, which is promising for AD management. Hence, in the current review, we aim to decipher the protective role of steroid hormones in AD. Accordingly, we will discuss their functional mechanisms at the genomic and non-genomic scales.
Introduction
Steroid hormones have different effects on various tissues such as gonads and the nervous system. In addition to their hormonal role in reproductive activity, they have protective functions in the central nervous system (CNS) [26, 37]. Following the binding of the hormone, receptors become phosphorylated, migrate to the nucleus, and activate transcription of specific genes. These hormones can affect different CNS areas, namely the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves, due to estrogen and progesterone receptors in these sites [26]. Previous studies showed that androgen and estrogen levels are higher in the newly-isolated hippocampus of male mice than in the plasma [42]. Steroids play an essential role in maintaining the body's vital balance. Neurosteroids are steroids synthesized in the brain independent of their peripheral production in the adrenal glands. Neurosteroids can regulate neuronal excitability and play a distinct role in anxiety and depression disorders [41]. Although neurosteroids do not directly contact the steroid hormone receptors, their metabolites can occupy intracellular steroid receptors. Neurosteroids can activate signaling pathways and alter cellular behavior by acting on the steroid receptor. In the current review, we first described the specificity of AD, then examined the role of steroid hormones in signaling pathways to prevent AD. Proper knowledge of these signaling pathways can provide the right treatment for better management of AD patients.
*Alzheimer's Disease
*Aβ Peptides in AD
*Neurosteroidogenesis in Alzheimer's disease
*Estrogen receptors in Alzheimer's disease
*The effects of sex hormones on signaling pathways in AD
*The Signaling Pathway of Testosterone in AD
*The Signaling Pathway of Estrogens in AD
*The Signaling Pathway of Progesterone in AD
Conclusion
Neurodevelopmental aspects of AD vary between men and women. Also, risk factors such as genetics and the environment are gender-specific for AD. The current knowledge provides valuable opportunities to understand the disease and make effective interventions. In general, sexual hormones and their metabolites can play an essential role in the survival of nerve cells, glial cells' function. Sexual steroid hormones can exert effects on learning by inducing the mitosis of the nerve cells. In adults, sexual steroid hormones have a broad range of neuroprotective effects; postmenopausal women are also at risk of neurological diseases such as AD. Due to steroid hormones and their metabolite's significant effects on re-myelination, steroid hormones could be one of the essential factors for the treatment of AD. Also, accurate knowledge of signaling pathways in therapeutic strategies can be beneficial.
