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Testosterone Replacement, Low T, HCG, & Beyond
Testosterone and Men's Health Articles
KNDy Neurons of the Hypothalamus and Their Role in GnRH Pulse Generation
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<blockquote data-quote="madman" data-source="post: 273690" data-attributes="member: 13851"><p><strong>Figure 1. Proposed model for generating and modulating synchronized episodes of kisspeptin, NKB, and dynorphin (KNDy) cell activity and pulsatile gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion. </strong>KNDy cells initiate and synchronize their activity by stimulatory glutamate-AMPA and neurokinin B(NKB)-NK3R signaling at reciprocal connections. Activation of KNDy cells triggers the release of kisspeptin, which stimulates cells in the arcuate nucleus expressing Kiss1R. Kiss1R cells, in turn, send a stimulatory signal back to KNDy cells to further promote NKB-mediated synchronization of the network and/or the release of kisspeptin, which stimulates the GnRH pulse via Kiss1R expressed by GnRH neurons. With a short time delay, dynorphin-KORsignaling terminates the GnRH pulse by inhibiting synchronized KNDy cell activity and the release of kisspeptin and NKB. Dynorphin may also directly terminate GnRH release via acting at kappa opioid receptor (KOR) expressed by the GnRH soma. The amplitude and frequency of synchronized activity can be modulated by upstream cells located in the preoptic area, hypothalamus, limbic system, and midbrain based on physiological and pathological cues. Neurotransmitters and neuropeptides implicated in the modulation of KNDy cells include, but may not be limited to, corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), γ-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, nitric oxide, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), proopiomelanocortin (POMC), RFamide-related peptide 3 (RFRP3), somatostatin, vasopressin, and substance P.</p><p>[ATTACH=full]40665[/ATTACH]</p></blockquote><p></p>
[QUOTE="madman, post: 273690, member: 13851"] [B]Figure 1. Proposed model for generating and modulating synchronized episodes of kisspeptin, NKB, and dynorphin (KNDy) cell activity and pulsatile gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion. [/B]KNDy cells initiate and synchronize their activity by stimulatory glutamate-AMPA and neurokinin B(NKB)-NK3R signaling at reciprocal connections. Activation of KNDy cells triggers the release of kisspeptin, which stimulates cells in the arcuate nucleus expressing Kiss1R. Kiss1R cells, in turn, send a stimulatory signal back to KNDy cells to further promote NKB-mediated synchronization of the network and/or the release of kisspeptin, which stimulates the GnRH pulse via Kiss1R expressed by GnRH neurons. With a short time delay, dynorphin-KORsignaling terminates the GnRH pulse by inhibiting synchronized KNDy cell activity and the release of kisspeptin and NKB. Dynorphin may also directly terminate GnRH release via acting at kappa opioid receptor (KOR) expressed by the GnRH soma. The amplitude and frequency of synchronized activity can be modulated by upstream cells located in the preoptic area, hypothalamus, limbic system, and midbrain based on physiological and pathological cues. Neurotransmitters and neuropeptides implicated in the modulation of KNDy cells include, but may not be limited to, corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), γ-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, nitric oxide, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), proopiomelanocortin (POMC), RFamide-related peptide 3 (RFRP3), somatostatin, vasopressin, and substance P. [ATTACH type="full"]40665[/ATTACH] [/QUOTE]
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Testosterone Replacement, Low T, HCG, & Beyond
Testosterone and Men's Health Articles
KNDy Neurons of the Hypothalamus and Their Role in GnRH Pulse Generation
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