Figure 2. Androgens and bone. Bone metabolism is strongly regulated by the activation of AR and ER. Androgens, such as testosterone, after being aromatized in 17β-estradiol, directly bind and activate AR and ER. AR activation stimulates osteoblast proliferation and the blockade of osteoclast activity, inducing bone formation. Conversely, ER activation inhibits osteoclast proliferation and stimulates their apoptosis, resulting in the inhibition of bone resorption.
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