The influence of phytoestrogens on different physiological and pathological processes:

[madman]

Functional foods have nutritional properties and organic functions, which are beneficial to health. Certain types of functional food components are so-called phytoestrogens, non-steroidal compounds derived from the metabolism of precursors contained in plants, which originate secondary metabotypes known to induce biological responses and by mimicry or modulating the action of endogenous estrogen. These molecules are involved in several physiological and pathological processes related to reproduction, bone remodeling, skin, cardiovascular, nervous, immune systems, and metabolism. This review aimed to present an overview of phytoestrogens regarding their chemical structure, actions, and effects in the organism given several pathologies. Several studies have demonstrated beneficial phytoestrogen actions, such as lipid profile improvement, cognitive function, menopause, oxidative stress, among others. Phytoestrogens' effects are not completely elucidated, being necessary future research to understand the exact action mechanisms, whether they are via estrogen receptor or whether other hidden mechanisms produce these effects. Thus, this review makes a general approach to the phytoestrogen actions, beneficial effects, risk, and limitations. However, the complexities of biological effects after ingestion of phytoestrogens and the differences in their metabolism and bioavailability indicate that interpretation of either risk or benefits needs to be made with caution.




1 | INTRODUCTION

2 | PHYTOESTROGENS ON DIET

3 | METABOLISM OF PHYTOESTROGENS

4 | STRUCTURAL SIMILARITY TO ESTROGEN


5 | ACTIONS OF PHYTOESTROGENS IN SOME PATHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

5.1 | Menopause
5.2 | Osteoporosis
5.3 | Diabetes mellitus
5.4 | Cardiovascular diseases
5.5 | Breast cancer
5.6 | Brain function
5.7 | Urogenital system


6 | EFFECTS OF PHYTOESTROGENS BY NON-HORMONAL ACTION

6.1 | Oxidative stress and cytokines
6.2 | Microbiota


7 | ADVERSE EFFECTS OF PHYTOESTROGENS

7.1 | Where are we now?


8 | FINAL CONSIDERATIONS


9 | CONCLUSION

Phytoestrogens have several benefits to the organism like antioxidants, neuroprotection, improve the immune system, cardiovascular protection, among others. There are complexities of the biological effects of phytoestrogens after ingestion because the interaction between the gut microbiome and the differences in their metabolism with consequent bioavailability indicates that an explanation about either risk or benefits needs to be made with caution.

 

[madman]

FIGURE 1 Scheme summarizing the phytoestrogens on diet, chemical characteristic, and action in some pathologies

 

[madman]

FIGURE 2 Chemical structures, benefits, and adverse effects of some phytoestrogens precursors and its similarity to the estrogen structure. AChE, acetylcholinesterase; LDL, low-density lipoprotein

 

[madman]

FIGURE 3 Scheme summarizing the actions of phytoestrogens on the different systems of the organism [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]